How many times have you re-read sentences in academic papers, flipped back and forth through reports to understand their conclusions, or decided that you couldn’t cite a paper because you simply couldn’t decode what it was saying? Academic and scientific writing is infamously hard to read, but it’s also the most important form of science communication. But of course it is: academic authors have many thoughts that need to get on the page. Behind those thoughts are years, if not decades, of knowledge, some of which may not make it to the page regardless of its importance to understanding their work. But if the whole point of writing is to communicate with others, and you don’t write with consideration for your readers, your work may defeat its purpose.
Just because science is complicated doesn’t mean that reading it has to be difficult. Sentence complexity and readability aren’t necessarily inversely related to one another. With the right techniques, you can make your science writing far easier to read, increasing the chances that your research will make an impact. Below, I’ve compiled a list of tips to get you started.
1. Keep verbs close to their subjects
The farther away a verb is from its subject, the greater the risk of the reader having to re-read the sentence to understand it, interrupting the flow of information and increasing the chances that readers will give up on reading. It also increases the risk of the reader misinterpreting your meaning, which defeats the purpose of communicating science in the first place.
For example,
Incorrect: Dr. Gerald, who is a world-renowned researcher in charge of a laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, where she also teaches classes on microbiology, did her PhD at Harvard University.
Correct: Dr. Gerald did her PhD at Harvard University. Today, she is a world-renowned researcher in charge of a laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, where she also teaches classes on microbiology.
2. Place new and/or important information at the end of a sentence
By default, readers will naturally put more emphasis on material placed at the end of a sentence. Therefore, placing important information at the end of a sentence—in the so-called stress position—will help readers to retain the most important information you want to convey.
For example,
Incorrect: Cultured meat offers a more sustainable and ethical alternative to traditional meat production.
Correct: Cultured meat offers an alternative to traditional meat production that is more sustainable and ethical.
3. Place the subject at the beginning of the sentence
The beginning of a sentence should offer context and perspective for any new information that follows. Defining the subject at the beginning of the sentence is a crucial part of this context. There are only a few circumstances where placing the subject at the beginning of a sentence may not be the most strategic decision (see the next tip), but this should be done thoughtfully.
For example,
Incorrect: A professional organization that advocates for physicians, promotes medical education, and works to improve public health policies across the United States, the American Medical Association (AMA) was founded in 1847.
Correct: The American Medical Association (AMA), founded in 1847, is a professional organization that advocates for physicians, promotes medical education, and works to improve public health policies across the United States.
4. Use passive voice with care
Passive voice is a way of structuring a sentence that places the object (the person/thing being acted upon) and the verb ahead of the subject (the person doing the thing), or neglects to mention the subject at all.
Academic and scientific writing is well known for using passive voice, particularly because many academics believed that using pronouns—such as I, my, we, and our—inserted the author and their opinions into the work, which (they thought) appeared unprofessional. However, active voice—where the subject precedes the verb and object—and pronoun use in academic writing is now common and accepted.
However, the discourse has shifted and begun to vilify passive voice. This, too, is incorrect. Passive voice can either be problematic or useful because it buries or removes the subject of a sentence. Sometimes, the subject of the sentence is actually the least important part. Alternatively, we may not know who the subject is, or we may want to place emphasis on the object of the sentence to better suit our purpose.
For example,
Incorrect: Slaughterhouse employees slaughter animals for human consumption every day.
Correct: Animals are slaughtered for human consumption every day.
Note: If we were writing an article about the wellbeing of slaughterhouse employees, the “incorrect” example above would be correct, as it places slaughterhouse employees at the forefront. However, if our goal is to discuss the scale of animal slaughter, who is doing the slaughtering is far less important than the fact that it happens every day. In this case, the “correct” example does a far better job of placing the emphasis on the parts of the sentence that serve our purpose.
5. Break up longer sentences
It’s possible to write a sentence that is both very long and easily understood, but it’s not easy. The rule that I came up with and loosely adhere to is that a sentence should not be longer than three lines (assuming your font is similar in size to 12-point Arial or Times New Roman). If you have sentences that reach or exceed three lines, you should consider breaking them up into two or more sentences to ensure you don’t lose readers. However, if your sentence includes a lot of jargon, new words or concepts introduced in the manuscript, or sophisticated/technical words, you should consider making even shorter sentences to ensure that readers can easily follow your train of thought.
Also, remember my earlier tips about the importance of the beginning and end of sentences? Having longer sentences means that there’s more room for information to end up lost or forgotten in the middle, whereas shorter sentences mean more opportunities for emphasis.
For example,
Incorrect: Consumer perception of plant-based meats is often shaped by concerns about taste, texture, and nutritional value, but many are also drawn to these products due to environmental and ethical considerations, leading to a growing demand for plant-based options in grocery stores and restaurants despite ongoing debates about plant-based meats’ health benefits and sustainability compared to traditional meat.
Correct: Consumer perception of plant-based meats is often shaped by concerns about taste, texture, and nutritional value. However, many consumers are also drawn to these products due to environmental and ethical considerations. This has led to a growing demand for plant-based options in grocery stores and restaurants despite ongoing debates about plant-based meats’ health benefits and sustainability compared to traditional meat.
6. Build connections by linking back to old information at the beginning of a new sentence
In addition to breaking up complex concepts into multiple, smaller sentences, you’ll need to link these sentences together so that readers can follow your thoughts and the conclusions that you’re building to. To do that, you’ll need to start a new sentence by linking back to the material in the previous sentence.
For example,
Incorrect: Precision fermentation uses engineered microorganisms, such as yeast or bacteria, to produce specific products, like proteins, enzymes, or vitamins, by fermenting simple sugars or other substrates. These are then used for a variety of applications, from food to cosmetics and beyond.
Correct: Precision fermentation uses engineered microorganisms, such as yeast or bacteria, to produce specific products, like proteins, enzymes, or vitamins, by fermenting simple sugars or other substrates. These fermentation products are then used for a variety of applications, from food to cosmetics and beyond.
7. Use descriptive verbs
Because science writing can be so dominated by passive voice, it’s easy to fall into the habit of using less precise verbs to relate subjects to their objects (i.e., some variation of is or has). Although this may be easy for writers, it requires readers to do more work to understand the actual actions taking place. Using more precise verbs can remove ambiguity about relationships between elements in a sentence.
For example,
Incorrect: Consumers are interested in tastier plant-based foods over those with the highest nutrition value.
Correct: Consumers prefer to buy tastier plant-based foods over those with the highest nutrition value.
8. Provide context for readers before asking them to consider something new
This may seem like an obvious point, but it’s all too easy to assume that your audience knows what you do or has made the same connections you have. In science, this gap between you and your audience can be even wider. While that gap may seem insurmountable and unavoidable, if you’re trying to convince your readers of a new theory or technology, failing to provide the necessary context may lead them to dismiss your conclusions early on. It’s also important to distinguish providing context from linking back to old information: there may be instances where linking back to old information doesn’t provide sufficient context for the new information you’re about to present.
For example,
Incorrect: Although dietary cholesterol consumption can contribute to higher cholesterol levels, most cholesterol is made endogenously. In cases where cholesterol levels remain high despite low dietary cholesterol, statins can effectively reduce hepatic cholesterol production.
Correct: Although dietary cholesterol consumption can contribute to higher cholesterol levels, most cholesterol is made endogenously by the liver. In cases where cholesterol levels remain high despite low dietary cholesterol, statins can effectively reduce hepatic cholesterol production.
9. Limit the number of highly technical words
Using technical words can reduce the amount of work required for you as a writer to explain concepts, helping to reduce wordiness. However, the more technical words you use, the more cognitive effort you demand of your readers. If you want your work to be read by an interdisciplinary audience, influence policy, or attract media attention, the time you take to explain yourself and consider your use of technical words can pay off. Even if you and your readers are well versed in the jargon of your field, limiting the number of highly technical words in your manuscript can help to ease the difficulty in reading and tying complex concepts together.
For example,
Incorrect: To make soy sauce, koji is inoculated with Aspergillus oryzae, which catalyzes the enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins and starches into amino acids and fermentable sugars, initiating a complex Maillard reaction during subsequent brine fermentation.
Correct: To make soy sauce, a mold called Aspergillus oryzae is combined with a mixture of steamed soybeans and wheat. This mold helps break down proteins and starches into amino acids and sugars, initiating a chemical reaction in the next stage of fermentation that is responsible for soy sauce’s rich flavors.
Note: Technical terms like Maillard reaction, koji, and enzymatic hydrolysis may be appropriate if they are central to the material discussed in the manuscript. However, if this excerpt only served to provide historical context on modern-day alternative protein fermentation in Japan, asking readers to decipher and remember their meanings could hinder readability.
10. Hold readers’ attention longer by using a varied vocabulary
This one may seem counterintuitive given the point above, but while you should try to limit the number of highly technical words you use, using a varied vocabulary of non-technical words can improve your writing quality and hold reader attention. This doesn’t mean that you should avoid repetition altogether, as repetition can help readers understand your work and retain information. It does mean that you should consider whether you’re using repetition to aid reader comprehension or simply out of ease for yourself. If it’s the latter, consider varying your vocabulary and sentence structure.
For example,
Incorrect: Plant-based cheese is a dairy-free alternative with textures and flavors like regular cheese.
Correct: Plant-based cheese offers a dairy-free alternative that mimics the creamy textures and rich flavors of traditional cheeses.
11. Keep sentences concise using complex nouns
Complex nouns are two or more nouns or adjectives modifying a final noun, all of which act together as a single noun unit. For example, “fermented plant-based protein” and “post-operative patient support group” are both complex nouns. Complex nouns pack a lot of information into a small space, keeping language concise. Researchers have actually found that the number of complex nouns used per independent clause was a positive predictor of an article’s Altmetric score.
For example,
Incorrect: Targeted therapies derived from monoclonal antibodies used for colorectal cancer that has metastasized have significantly improved patients’ survival rates by inhibiting the growth of tumors and adjusting the immune system’s response.
Correct: Targeted monoclonal antibody therapies for metastatic colorectal cancer have significantly improved patient survival rates by inhibiting tumor growth and adjusting immune system responses.
12. Avoid words that can clutter a sentence
While some clutter words can add variety to a text or clarify relationships, they tend to be used excessively. Overuse of these words can lengthen the gaps between subjects, verbs, and objects, presenting obstacles to reader comprehension, as well as demanding that readers spend more time with a manuscript than necessary. Be on the lookout for these words as you re-read and edit your work. Some examples to get you started include “in order to” instead of “to”, “lack the ability” instead of “cannot”, and “due to the fact that” instead of “because”.
For example,
Incorrect: We lack the ability to fully understand the behavior of certain particles due to the fact that they are small in size and difficult to observe with current technology.
Correct: We cannot fully understand the behavior of certain particles because they are small and difficult to observe with current technology.
Almost all good writing begins with terrible first efforts. You need to start somewhere. Start by getting something—anything—down on paper. A friend of mine says that the first draft is the down draft—you just get it down. The second draft is the up draft—you fix it up. You try to say what you have to say more accurately. And the third draft is the dental draft, where you check every tooth, to see if it’s loose or cramped or decayed, or even, God help us, healthy.
Anne Lamott, Bird by Bird
Final Thoughts
Keeping all twelve of these tips in mind as you write is very likely an impossible task. Writing a first draft is difficult enough without self-censorship. To me, writing that first draft often feels like teasing apart a knot. Where should I start? How much attention should I put into this section? Would it be easier to just start over? So, before you try to implement these tips, write that draft, then take a break: reward yourself, let your brain reset, and come back to your work in a day or more. The longer the break, the more issues you’ll spot and the less overwhelming fixing those issues will feel. That is when these tips will be most useful.
Getting an outsider’s feedback can work in much the same way as taking that break. If your beta reader is not familiar with your field of expertise, they’ll also be able to point out any leaps in logic and bring your attention to missing context. That said, not everyone will understand the nuances of science communication. Some will tell you that passive voice is more academically correct, while others will zealously remove every use of passive voice without regard for its function. If you want a fresh opinion on the readability of your manuscript from someone who understands the principles of clear science communication, an editor is your best bet.